Table 2 OVs induce ICD and/or promote antitumor immunity in animal models or human patients (*)

Ad

hTERT-Ad

E1a gene driven by hTERT promoter

Immunogenic apoptosis

hTERT-Ad and bortezmib (proteasome inhibition) leads to potent antitumor immunity

[65]

Ad5/3-D24-GMCSF

Ad3 fiber E1a-deleted (RB-selective) GM-CSF +

Enhanced autophagy; ecto- CRT; released ATP and HMGB1

Tumor-specific T cell responses and antitumor efficacy in some patients [clinical trial]

[62]

HSV

G207

R34.5-; ICP6-

NA

Systemic antitumor immunity (CD8⁺ T cells)

[66]

HSV-1716

ICP 34.5 gene mutant

Induction of IFN-γ, CXCL9 and CXCL10

Intratumoral injection increased NK and CD8⁺ T cells

[67]

T-VEC

ICP47-γ34.5 - GM-CSF +

Necrosis/apoptosis (in vivo)

Antigen-specific T cell responses and decreases in Treg, Ts, and MDSC in human melanoma patients [clinical trials]

[68, 69]

HSV-2 ΔPK mutant

ICP10 PK domain deleted

Apoptosis/Pyroptosis

Dominant induction of CD4⁺ Th1 cells

[70]

Poxvirus

vSP

Spi-1/spi-2-

Necrosis/apoptosis HMGB1 release

NA

[58]

vvDD

tk-/vgf-

Necrosis/HMGB1 and ATP release

CD11b + cells and CD11b⁺Ly6G⁺ cells (DCs and Neutrophils)

[71]

Pexa-Vec

tk-GM-CSF+

NA

Antiviral CTL and antibodies against TAAs in Human HCC patients [clinical trial]

[72]

Arbovirus

VSV-GFP (Indiana serotype)

Marker gene GFP

Induction of IL-28 by virally activated innate immune cells in the TME

IL-28 sensitize cancer cells to NK cell recognition and killing

[73]

VSVgm-icv oncolytic vaccine plateform

Deletion in The M protein at position 51; VSV-GM-CSF+

NA

The antitumor immunity is robust enough to control established tumor. Tumor is infiltrated by a large number of IFNγ-producing T and NK cells

[74]

Paramyxovirus

MV-eGFP (Edmonston strain)

Marker gene EGFP

Released inflammatory cytokines and chemokines; IL-6 and HMGB1

Enhance innate antitumor and melanoma-specific adaptive immunity (in vitro)

[55]

MV vaccine-infected tumor cells

Marker gene EGFP

ICD; apoptotic cells phagocytosed by DCs

Allowing DC to mature, produce high level of IFN-α, and cross-present TAAs and production of tumor-specific CD8 T cells

[75, 76]