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Table 1 The content of tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) and their effects on developmental stages of DCs

From: The roles of tumor-derived exosomes in altered differentiation, maturation and function of dendritic cells

Exosome content

Mechanism of Action

Ref

Inhibition of DCs Differentiation

 Cox-2, PGE2, TGF-b1, IL-6, HSP-70, and HSP-72

Promoting the polarization of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), mainly through the STAT-3 pathway

[24,25,26,27,28,29, 31,32,33, 35,36,37,38]

 Glycolytic Enzymes

Increasing ATP and lactic acid levels and enhancing MDSCs population

[18, 42,43,44,45]

 HLA-G

Blocking monocyte-derived DCs differentiation

[39]

Inhibition of DCs Maturation

 Galectin-9 and TIM-3

Interacting with TIM-3 on DCs and reducing nucleic acid sensing

[51,52,53]

 CD-47

Reducing phagocytosis by interacting with SIRP-a on DCs

[54,55,56,57,58,59,60]

 S100A9

Downregulating CD83, CD86, IL-12 and IL-15 expression levels

[63,64,65,66,67]

 TGF-b1

Induction of TGF-b1 secretion by DCs

[9, 68, 73, 74]

 Lactate dehydrogenase

Increasing ATP and lactate levels in tumor microenvironment

[43,44,45, 75, 76]

Inhibition of DCs Function

 STAT3 activators

Reducing the levels of MHC and CD83 and CD86 molecules

[31, 34, 80]

 PD-L1

Inducing PD-1 expression and transferring of negative signals

[12, 82,83,84,85,86,87,88]

 IDO

- Decreasing the levels of CD40, CD83, CD86 and MHC molecules

- Degrading tryptophan into kynurenine

- Kynurenine-meditated increase of IDO expression on DCs

[93, 95,96,97]

 L-arginase (ARG1)

-Impedes the DCs-mediated T cells priming in regional lymph nodes

- Reduces arginine level in tumor microenvironment, resulting in lower expression of MHC molecules

[24, 98,99,100]

 PGE and TGF-b1

Increasing CD73 expression on DCs, resulting in increased levels of inhibitory adenosine in tumor site

[16, 24, 104, 105]

 Lipids

Accumulating lipids in DCs, interfering with their antigen-presentation function

[106,107,108,109]