Nanocarrier Type | Immune Response Type | Immunomodulatory Mechanism | Dose–Response | Tumor Immune Microenvironment | Adverse Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lipid-based nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of complement system, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Cytokine release syndrome, infusion reactions | [57] |
Polymeric nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Enhanced antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | T cell exhaustion, autoimmune reactions | |
Dendrimers | Innate and adaptive immune response | Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist, enhanced antigen presentation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of dendritic cells, T cells, and natural killer cells | Hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, anaphylaxis | [99] |
Iron oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, natural killer cells | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Iron overload, liver toxicity | [121] |
Gold nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [121] |
Quantum dots | Adaptive immune response | Enhanced antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | [176] |
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Innate immune response | TLR signaling, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Silica-induced lung fibrosis, inflammation | [23] |
Protein-based nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, allergic reactions | [57] |
Carbon-based nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Phagocytosis, cytokine secretion | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, fibrosis | [57] |
Liposomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Hypersensitivity reactions, phagocytosis by macrophages | [13] |
Virus-like particles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, autoimmunity | [274] |
Nanogels | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, renal toxicity | [275] |
Nanodiamonds | Innate and adaptive immune response | Cytokine secretion, dendritic cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, genotoxicity | [238] |
Magnetic nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Induction of heat shock proteins, activation of macrophages | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Magnetic field-induced tissue damage, cellular stress | [276] |
Nanotubes | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | |
Metal–organic frameworks | Innate immune response | TLR signaling, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [101] |
Polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
Exosomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, clearance rate | [30] |
RNA nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [277] |
Metal nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [277] |
Supramolecular nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [278] |
Hydrogels | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, mechanical stability | [279] |
Lipid-coated calcium phosphate nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [57] |
Metallic oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [243] |
Core–shell nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [243] |
Janus nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
Lipid-protein nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [57] |
Layer-by-layer nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [99] |
Polymeric micelles | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | |
Polymer vesicles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | |
Plasmonic nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [280] |
Protein-coated nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [100] |
Silica nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Silica-induced lung fibrosis, inflammation | [88] |
Smart nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [281] |
Supramolecular assemblies | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [282] |
Theranostic nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of imaging agents | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [130] |
Cell-derived nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, clearance rate | [196] |
Multifunctional nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [18] |
Carbon dots | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [18] |
Exosome-mimetic nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [283] |
Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
Iron oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Iron overload, oxidative stress | [121] |
Gold nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [121] |
Carbon nanotubes | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | [18] |
Albumin nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [27] |
Liposomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [13] |
Solid lipid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
Graphene oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, genotoxicity | [174] |
Self-assembled nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [272] |
Polymer-drug conjugates | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | |
Peptide-based nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [56] |
Viral nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, potential for viral replication | [109] |
Hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [284] |
Polyplexes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of nucleic acids, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [285] |