Targeting Agent Type | Target Antigen | Affinity | Specificity | Binding Site | Targeted Therapy Type | Description | Novelty | Advantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) | CD20 | High | Specific | Epitope on B-cell surface | Immunotherapy | First-line treatment for non-Hodgkin lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia | Highly specific to target antigen | Target other healthy cells with similar antigen, Costly production | [48] |
Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) | HER2 | High | Specific | Epitope on HER2-positive cancer cells | Chemotherapy | Targeted delivery of cytotoxic agents to HER2-positive cancer cells | Reduced side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy | Limited therapeutic window, Risk of resistance development | |
Bispecific T cell engagers (BiTEs) | CD19 and CD3 | High | Specific | Epitopes on B-cell and T-cell surfaces | Immunotherapy | Redirect T cells to attack CD19-positive B cells | High potency, Lower toxicity compared to CAR T cell therapy | Limited to CD19-positive cancers, Potential for cytokine release syndrome | [51] |
Peptide ligands | VEGF receptor | Moderate | Specific | Ligand-binding site on VEGF receptor | Anti-angiogenic therapy | Inhibit angiogenesis by blocking VEGF receptor signaling | Low immunogenicity, Easier to produce than mAbs | Short half-life, Rapid clearance | [52] |
Aptamers | PDGF | High | Specific | Binding site on PDGF | Anti-angiogenic therapy | Inhibit PDGF signaling to block angiogenesis | High binding affinity, Low immunogenicity, Easier to produce than mAbs | Short half-life, Limited in vivo stability | [44] |
Nanobodies | EGFR | High | Specific | Epitope on EGFR | Immunotherapy | Target EGFR-positive cancer cells for imaging and therapy | Small size, High specificity, High in vivo stability | Limited penetration of solid tumors, Limited capacity for multivalent binding | [53] |
CAR T cells | CD19 | High | Specific | Epitope on B-cell surface | Immunotherapy | Genetically engineered T cells that express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) for CD19 | High efficacy, Durable response, Curative potential for some hematological malignancies | Risk of severe toxicity including cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity, High cost | [54] |
Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) | CD20 | High | Specific | Epitope on B-cell surface | Radiation therapy | Combine the specificity of mAbs with the therapeutic potential of ionizing radiation | Selectively target and destroy cancer cells, Potential for long-term response | Limited to CD20-positive cancers, Risk of toxicity to normal tissue, Complex production process | |
Small molecule inhibitors | BCR-ABL | High | Specific | Active site of BCR-ABL kinase | Targeted therapy | Inhibit the activity of cancer-promoting proteins | Oral administration, High selectivity, Overcome resistance to traditional chemotherapy | Limited to cancers driven by specific mutations, Development of resistance | |
Viral vectors | HER2 | High | Specific | Epitope on HER2-positive cancer cells | Gene therapy | Deliver therapeutic genes to HER2-positive cancer cells | High specificity and selectivity, Potential for long-term response | Limited to HER2-positive cancers, Potential for toxicity and immune response | |
Peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) | KRAS | High | Specific | Target site on KRAS mRNA | Gene therapy | Inhibit the expression of cancer-promoting genes | High specificity, Stable in vivo, Overcome resistance to traditional chemotherapy | Limited to cancers driven by specific mutations, Development of resistance | [55] |
Aptamer-drug conjugates (ApDCs) | PSMA | High | Specific | Binding site on PSMA | Chemotherapy | Targeted delivery of cytotoxic agents to PSMA-positive cancer cells | Reduced side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy, Easier to produce than mAbs | Limited therapeutic window, Risk of resistance development | [44] |
Peptide vaccines | MUC1 | Moderate | Specific | Epitope on MUC1-positive cancer cells | Immunotherapy | Activate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells | Induce long-lasting immune responses, Low toxicity | Limited to MUC1-positive cancers, Limited efficacy in solid tumors | [56] |
Liposomes | Doxorubicin | Low | Non-specific | Passive targeting to tumors through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect | Chemotherapy | Deliver drugs to tumors with reduced side effects on healthy tissues | Easier to produce than mAbs, Versatile drug delivery system | Limited selectivity, Variable EPR effect in different cancers | [57] |
Gold nanoparticles | EGFR | Moderate | Specific | Epitope on EGFR | Photothermal therapy | Absorb light to generate heat and destroy cancer cells | High biocompatibility, Versatile drug delivery system | Limited penetration of solid tumors, Limited efficacy in deep tissues | [58] |
Magnetic nanoparticles | CD44 | Low | Non-specific | Magnetic targeting to tumors with external magnetic fields | Chemotherapy | Deliver drugs to tumors with reduced side effects on healthy tissues | Easier to produce than mAbs, Minimal systemic exposure | Limited selectivity, Limited efficacy in deep tissues | [59] |
RNA interference (RNAi) | Survivin | High | Specific | Target site on survivin mRNA | Gene therapy | Inhibit the expression of cancer-promoting genes | High specificity, Overcome resistance to traditional chemotherapy | Limited to cancers | [60] |
Aptamer-conjugated nanoparticles | Nucleolin | High | Specific | Binding site on nucleolin | Chemotherapy | Targeted delivery of drugs to nucleolin-positive cancer cells | High specificity, Reduced side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy, Easier to produce than mAbs | Limited to nucleolin-positive cancers, Limited in vivo stability | [44] |
Antibody-nanoparticle conjugates | CD20 | High | Specific | Epitope on B-cell surface | Immunotherapy | Targeted delivery of nanoparticles to CD20-positive cancer cells for imaging and therapy | Increased tumor penetration and retention, High selectivity | Limited to CD20-positive cancers, Risk of immunogenicity | [61] |
Tumor-penetrating peptides | iRGD | Moderate | Specific | Binding site on integrins and neuropilin-1 | Chemotherapy | Enhance the penetration and accumulation of drugs in tumors | High specificity, Overcome barriers to drug delivery in solid tumors | Limited efficacy in deep tissues, Potential for off-target effects | [43] |
Nanobody-drug conjugates | EGFR | High | Specific | Epitope on EGFR | Chemotherapy | Targeted delivery of cytotoxic agents to EGFR-positive cancer cells | Small size, High specificity, Reduced side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy | Limited to EGFR-positive cancers, Limited capacity for multivalent binding | [44] |
Dual-targeting antibodies | CD3 and CD20 | High | Specific | Epitopes on B-cell and T-cell surfaces | Immunotherapy | Redirect T cells to attack CD20-positive B cells | Increased efficacy, Overcome resistance to monoclonal antibodies | Limited to CD20-positive cancers, Potential for cytokine release syndrome | [61] |
Protein cages | Ferritin | Low | Non-specific | Passive targeting to tumors through the EPR effect | Drug delivery | Deliver drugs to tumors with reduced side effects on healthy tissues | Easier to produce than mAbs, Biocompatible | Limited selectivity, Variable EPR effect in different cancers | [28] |
Aptamer-siRNA conjugates | VEGF | High | Specific | Binding site on VEGF | Gene therapy | Inhibit VEGF expression to block angiogenesis | High specificity, Overcome delivery challenges | Limited to VEGF-driven cancers, Variable in vivo stability | [44] |
Therapeutic antibodies | CTLA-4 | High | Specific | Epitope on CTLA-4 | Immunotherapy | Block inhibitory signals to activate T cells against cancer cells | High specificity, Durable response, Synergistic with PD-1 blockade | Risk of toxicity, Limited efficacy in solid tumors | [61] |
Bifunctional fusion proteins | IL-2 and CD25 | High | Specific | Epitopes on T-cell and cancer cell surfaces | Immunotherapy | Stimulate T-cell proliferation and activation against cancer cells | Increased efficacy, Reduced toxicity compared to systemic IL-2 | Limited to IL-2-responsive cancers, Limited efficacy in solid tumors | [62] |