|
E-cadherin
|
Regulates the invasive capacity of prostate cancer cells
| |
[3, 57, 58]
|
|
β-Catenin
|
Regulates the process of EMT and metastatic phenotypes
| |
[59]
|
|
N-cadherin
|
Promotes growth, metastasis and castration resistance in prostate cancer
|
Yes
|
[12, 60, 61]
|
|
Cadherin-11
|
Enhances migration and invasion capacity of prostate cancer cells, increases the association with osteoblasts
| |
[14, 62]
|
|
Vimentin
|
Promotes prostate cancer cell invasion and metastasis
|
Yes
|
[63]
|
|
Fibronectin
|
Protects cells from undergoing apoptosis
| |
[64, 65]
|
|
Collagen 1
|
Have an effect on EMT of prostate cancer cells
| |
[65]
|
|
alphaII(b)beta3 integrin
|
Participates in the metastatic progression of prostatic adenocarcinoma
| |
[66]
|
|
Syndecan-1
|
Associates with Gleason score and tumor progression of prostate cancer
| |
[67–69]
|
|
Zeb1
|
Altering the invasive phenotype of Prostate cancer cells
|
Yes
|
[2, 8, 70]
|
|
Slug
|
Correlates with advanced pathological grades of prostate cancer
|
Yes
|
[11, 71]
|
|
Snail
|
Contributes to prostate cancer progression and metastasis
| |
[4, 5, 72, 73]
|
|
Twist
|
Correlates with Gleason grading and metastasis
|
Yes
|
[9, 10]
|
|
ETS-1
|
Mediates by TGF-β, affects cell growth and tumor formation
|
Yes
|
[74, 75]
|
|
CSC markers
|
Function
|
CRPC
|
Refs
|
|
Lgr4
|
Regulates early prostate development and stem cell differentiation
| |
[32]
|
|
α2β1 integrin
|
Produces prostate-like glands
| |
[30]
|
|
CD133
|
Functions as a normal prostate stem cell marker and has tumor formation ability
| |
[76]
|
|
CD166
|
A potential surface marker for castration resistant tumor cells
|
Yes
|
[21]
|
|
PSA
|
Displays increased colony and sphere-form capacity
|
Yes
|
[22]
|
|
CD44
|
Associates with cells of neuro-endocrine phenotype
| |
[77]
|
|
CD44+/α2β1hi/CD133+
|
Presents high proliferative ability in vitro and can differentiate to an AR–positive phenotype similar to prostate cancers in vivo
| |
[78]
|
|
CD44+ CD24(-)
|
Exhibits stem cell characteristics and predicts overall survival in prostate cancer patients.
| |
[79]
|
|
Sca-1
|
Have high proliferative ability and high capacity to reconstitute prostatic tissue
| |
[31]
|
|
Nkx3.1
|
Indicates that luminal cells might be a cell of origin
|
Yes
|
[20]
|
|
p63
|
Produces all epithelial lineages of the adult prostate (i.e., basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine cells)
| |
[80, 81]
|
|
Lin-Sca-1-CD49f+ (LSC)
|
Produces prostatic tubule structures
| |
[82]
|
|
Lin-CD44+CD133+Sca-1+CD117+
|
Produces a prostate after transplantation in vivo
| |
[29]
|
|
Trop2
|
Trop2hi basal cells give rise to basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine cells in vivo
| |
[83]
|
|
ALDH1
|
Associates with a poor prognosis for patients with prostate cancer
| |
[84, 85]
|
|
Nanog
|
Promotes CSC phenotypes and properties in vitro and in vivo, promotes AI phenotypes and CRPC regeneration
|
Yes
|
[24, 25]
|
|
Bmi-1
|
A key regulator of self-renewal activity, plays central roles in malignant progression of prostate cancer
|
Yes
|
[26]
|
|
Sox2
|
Inhibits by AR signaling and play an important role in CRPC
|
Yes
|
[28]
|
|
TRA-1-60, CD151 and CD166
|
Exhibits enhanced sphere-forming capacities in vitro and tumor-initiation capacities in vivo
| |
[86]
|
|
Signal pathway involved CSC and EMT
|
Function
|
CRPC
|
Refs
|
|
AR
|
A key regulator for the acquisition of EMT phenotypes
|
Yes
|
[42, 45]
|
|
PTEN/AKT
|
Promotes prostate tumor growth and metastasis
| |
[87]
|
|
AKT/GSK-3β
|
Participates in TNFα-induced EMT process
| |
[88]
|
|
ERK
|
Has a profound feedback on EGFR signaling
| |
[89]
|
|
AKT
|
Has a great effect on cell migration via induction of the EMT characteristics
| |
[89]
|
|
TGF-β
|
Associates with malignant progression of prostate cancer by activation of the EMT phenotypes
| |
[90, 91]
|
|
CCL2/CCR2-STAT3
|
Promotes prostate cancer cell migration/invasion and EMT pathways
|
Yes
|
[92]
|
|
Hsp27-STAT3-Twist
|
Promotes prostate cancer metastasis, regulates the process of EMT
|
Yes
|
[39]
|
|
PTEN and RAS/MAPK
|
Accelerates prostate cancer malignant progression accompanied by acquisition of EMT phenotypes and stem-cell like properties
|
Yes
|
[37]
|
|
NF-kappaB
|
Correlates with EMT in human prostate cancer cells and may be functionally associated with the stem-like human prostate tumor initiation cells
| |
[86, 93, 94]
|
|
JAK-STAT
|
Participates in significantly different gene expression in prostate cancer stem cells
| |
[95]
|
|
PDGF-D
|
Mediates EMT process and regulates cancer cell invasion
| |
[96]
|
|
IGF-1
|
Regulates EMT associated migration and invasion via elevated Zeb1 expression
|
Yes
|
[8]
|
|
FGFR-1
|
Leads to an EMT and distant metastasis
| |
[38]
|
|
EGFR
|
Presents loss of cell-cell junctions with decreased epithelial markers and enhanced mesenchymal markers
| |
[89]
|
|
WNT
|
Mediates EMT phenotypes and stemness maintenance of prostate cancer cells
|
Yes
|
[40, 97]
|
|
Notch and Hedgehog
|
Regulates drug resistance and plays important roles in malignant transformation
|
Yes
|
[98, 99]
|
|
Hypoxia-ERβ-HIF-1a/VEGF-A
|
Mediates EMT and have an implication in Gleason grading
| |
[100]
|
|
DAB2IP
|
Regulates EMT and prostate cancer metastasis and serves as a target gene of EZH2 in prostatic epithelium
| |
[101–103]
|
|
p63/miR205
|
Suppresses cell migration and metastasis
| |
[104]
|
| |
Produces changes in Golgi polarization
| | |
