Table 1 Various cytokines in the tumor ecosystem of HNSCC

Chemokine

CCL2

Tumor cell

Drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[51]

CCL13

TAM

Promote tumor metastasis

-

[53]

CCL18

TAM

Promote tumor metastasis and invasion

-

[54]

CXCL1

CAF

Promote tumor metastasis

-

[175]

CXCL8

Tumor cell

Improve the survival rate and angiogenic potential of endothelial cells

AKT signaling pathway

[95]

CXCL12

CAF

Recruit TAMs, drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[176]

CXCL13

Follicular dendritic cell

Recruit B cells

-

[177]

Chemokine receptor

CCR2

Tumor cell

Drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[51]

CXCR2

Monocyte

Recruit neutrophils

-

[88]

Growth factor

BDNF

CAF

Promote tumor metastasis

TrkB signaling

[178]

EGF

Tumor cell

Improve the survival rate and angiogenic potential of endothelial cells

ERK signaling pathway

[95]

EREG

CAF

Promote tumor invasion

JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway

[179]

HGF

CAF

Promote tumor metastasis

HGF/c-Met signaling pathway

[180]

TGF-β

CAF

Induce EMT

-

[24, 27]

Drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[45]

Promote tumor metastasis

SOX9

[181]

TAM

Promote tumor invasion

-

[55]

Mediate immunosuppression

-

[57]

B cell

Anti-tumor immunity

-

[77]

MDSC

Promote PMN formation and metastasis

-

[83]

Tumor cell

Promote inflammation, angiogenesis, and epithelial hyperproliferation

-

[97]

VEGF

TAM

Stimulate angiogenesis

-

[51]

MDSC

Promote PMN formation and metastasis

-

[83]

Tumor cell

Enhance the migration of tumor cells and protect them from apoptosis

AKT/ERK signaling pathway

[182]

Mediate M2 TAMs

-

[98]

Inflammatory cytokine

IL-1β

CAF

Promote tumor invasion

-

[175]

Tumor cell

Promote activation between CAFs and tumor cells

CXCL1

Immune cell

Increase Th17 cells

-

[67]

IL-6

Endothelial cell

Enhance the survival, self-renewal and tumorigenic potential of CSCs

STAT3 signaling pathway

[25]

promote tumorigenesis

JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

[44]

TAM

Drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[52]

Tumor cell

Increase plasma NETs

-

[92]

Improve the survival rate and angiogenic potential of endothelial cells

STAT3 signaling pathway

[95]

IL-10

CAF

Drive macrophages to M2-type transformation

-

[45]

TAM

-

[51]

Mediate immunosuppression

-

[57, 59]

B cell

Anti-tumor immunity

-

[77]

IL-23

Tumor cell and TIL

Increase Th17 cells

-

[67]

IL-35

B cell

Anti-tumor immunity

[77]

MIF

Tumor cell

Recruit neutrophils

-

[88]

TNF-α

Macrophage

Increase plasma NETs

-

[92]